The Influence of Chinese Culture on Buddhism Essay Example for Free

The Influence of Chinese Culture on Buddhism Essay Buddhism was originally developed in India and brought to China over the silk road, and later to some extent through southeast Asia around the first century A.D.. This was during a time when the then reigning Han dynasty was in a state of chaos and Confucianism was being discredited by some intellectuals. The Chinese people therefore came to identify Confucianism with the failing dynasty, and sought a new ideology to take place of stale Confucian thinking. The exact date of the coming of Buddhism to China is unknown, but by 64 A. D. Buddhist monks had introduced written scripture into China. At first Buddhism was not popular in China. Interest took several centuries to grow because of Buddhisms incongruities with Chinese thought, as well as translation problems (Sanskrit to Chinese). Because Buddhism first entered through Chinas trading routes with Central Asia, it was seen as the religion of foreign merchants. Consequently, Large scale translation of Buddhist texts did not truly get under way until the 6th to 8th centuries A.D. This resulted in the wider distribution of Buddhism being delayed several centuries. Buddhism was difficult for the Chinese to accept because it was mysterious and hard to understand. Not straight-forward like Confucian teachings, more like the ambiguity of Taoism (Jin 1), also. it was foreign. Moreover, Buddhism did not focus on problems of state as Confucianism did, and because the study of Confucianism was required material for the exams of public office, practical males preferred its study to that of Buddhism. Moreover, the Buddhist stress on personal fulfillment (even the Buddha left his family to search for revelation (Jin 1)) seemed counterintuitive to the Chinese values of family and ancestor worship. As the religion became more widespread the Chinese people began to adapt distinctly Chinese forms of Buddhism. There were three major types of Chinese Buddhism. The first was Pure Land Buddhism and it was started by Hui Yuan; this type of Buddhism focused on devotion to the Amitabha Buddha  in the belief that after death they would be born again in Western Paradise (Pure Land). In this religion worship of the Bodhisattva Guan-Yin was also very important (Jin). Chan or Zen Buddhism was founded by Hui-neng. It was hostile toward all scripture and dogma. The Zen Buddhists meditated on illogical riddles in order to gain enlightenment (Jin). Chih-I founded Tien Tai Buddhism whose primary emphasis was placed on the recitation and study of the Lotus Sutra (Jin). To thrive in China, Buddhism had to be transformed into a system that could exist within the Chinese way of life. Thus,  obscure Indian sutras that advocated filial piety became core texts in China. Buddhism was made compatible with ancestor worship and participation in Chinas hierarchical system. Works were written arguing that the salvation of an individual was a benefit to that individuals society and family, and monks thus contributed to the greater good. (Wikipedia, Buddhism in China) Popular Chinese Buddhism therefore, was fairly removed from the ideals that came from India. The basic ideas of karmic retribution, samsara, and nirvana came through intact, but in order to make Buddhism more palatable to the Chinese, it had to be adapted to their preexisting beliefs such as those previously mentioned. The portrayal of the netherworld in popular Chinese Buddhism highlights these changes in several ways. The Chinese not only translated Buddhist texts, but also began to directly associate the Buddhist ideas of the netherworld with those conceptions already popular in China. To begin, the (pre-Buddhist) Chinese believed in the [Taoist] concept of a world of the dead usually thought to be located beneath Mt. Tai in Shantung (Gjertson #1, 118). However, according to Professor Gjertson, the idea of hell as a location for punishment was due to the influence of Buddhism, and was not see in literature until the 6th century, where it is seen in Taoist scriptures. Also in popular Chinese Buddhist works the hells take on the anatomy of the then current bureaucratic and physical structures of China. Or, as Gjertson in his article entitled Popular Buddhism and Karmic Retribution describes, The nether world, at least superficially, was  conceived as a construct physically and bureaucratically similar to the world of the living (Gjertson 134). Often, someones death was likened to a live person being called to serve an office. For example in the story of Tuan Tzu-ching in which one of two inseparable friends, Liang, dies suddenly and when he arrives in the ghost realm he discovers that the position of Chief Clerk (a very prestigious position) has become available. Liang immediately suggests his (living) friend Tuan for the position. King Yama, the king of the dead, then looked at Tuans record and discovered that Tuan was not scheduled to die until he was ninety-seven, and he was then just thirty-two so he allowed Liang to visit his friend and invite him to take this office in the netherworld. Tuan agrees, and three days later he dies in order to take up his new position as Chief Clerk in the netherworld. This story shows a person literally dying in order to gain a bureaucratic appointment. Mentioned in Tale Number 19, Sui Jen-chien, is a description of the physical similarities between the netherworld and the world of the living. A ghost explains to a man that he serves as administrator of Lin-hu. The man, inquires of the whereabouts of the area and the name of its king and is told, The state of Lin-hu comprises everything northwest of the Yellow River The capital is northwest of Lou-fan, in the desert. The King used to be King Wu-ling of the Chao, but he now controls this country. Everything is under the administration of Mt. Tai and every month the highest ministers are sent there to attend court (Gjertson #3, 196). Directly referenced here are specific locations in the netherworld which seem to correspond to the living world. The ghost says, the King used to be King Wu-ling of the Chao, but he now controls this country, this must mean that King Wu-ling controls the corollary land, metaphorically under that of the living country to which it seems they refer. The idea of karma, that a person would be judged by their actions, whether they be morally right or wrong is and idea obviously intrinsic to the Buddhist faith; the belief [t]hat the acts were judged, and the appropriate retribution assigned, in a nether-world court administered by an extensive staff of officials and their assistants is, however, a feature uniquely Chinese (Gjertson #1, 143). In a tale taken from Tang Lins Ming-pao chi for example, a man if brought before a judge of the underworld and accused of cooking six eggs as well as killing two ducks and two oxen, for this, the judge decides, he should be punished. The man protests, crying out loudly, This office is being grossly unjust! (Gjertson #2, 301) The man explains that they have not heard his good deeds, and since the judicial system is indeed a fair one, they are heard, but still his evil deeds outweigh his good, and he is sentenced. This clearly exemplifies the idea of a Chinese judicial system governing the popular Chinese Buddhist workings of karma. In conclusion, the Buddhist religion has proved that it can accommodate in many ways, the Chinese people. Upon its arrival in China it satisfied a need of the people for a new religion under which to unite at the tragic fall of an empire. During this turbulent period in China, two major developments took place in Buddhism. One group consisting mostly of the sophisticated gentry dwelled on the philosophical and mystical aspects of Buddhism, while the other group dominated by rural farmers followed Buddhism in their own superstitious and simple ways imparting to it in the process a peculiar Chinese character. Buddhism stretched even more to allow for translation using Taoist terminology because the Chinese language did not possess a conceptual apparatus adequate for the abstract thought of Buddhism. The use of these familiar Taoist concepts contributed significantly to the spread of Buddhism in China. Buddhist teaching were changed in many ways to accommodate traditional Chinese sensibilities, but the religion changed China as well, leaving in its wake years of rich culture and traditional Buddhist writings that no longer exist in their original Indian form. Works Cited (#1) Gjertson, Donald. Popular Buddhism and Karmic Retribution. Also Sui Jen-chien, Kung Ko, and Chang Fa-i. From Miraculous Retribution: A Study and Translation of Tang Lins Ming-pao chi, Berkeley: University of California Berkeley, Berkeley Buddhist Study Series Volume 8, 1989. (#2) Gjertson, Donald. The Early Chinese Buddhist Miracle Tale: A Preliminary Survey, in The Journal of the American Oriental Society 101.3, 1981. Jin, Shunde. Buddhism In China. (handout for Chinese 231 Traditional Chinese Culture, Ohio State University, 1998). http://www.cohums.ohio-state.edu/deall/jin.3/c231/handouts/h10.htm Wikipedia. Buddhism in China. Local Interpretation of Indian Texts. Updated: 3/31/2004. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_China#Relation_to_Confucianism _and_Daoism

Mosaddeqs Nationalization of Oil in Iran Essay -- Foreign Policy Poli

Mosaddeq's Nationalization of Oil in Iran The world of foreign policy is like a multi-sided game of chess. Moves are made with varying degrees of calculation and skill, and nothing happens in a vacuum. Everything that happens affects the other players' sets of options and levels of risk. In analyzing historical events in international relations, it is incumbent upon the analyst to take into consideration the historical and regional context to what happened. At the time of the coup that overthrew Premier Mosaddeq, several world events had just happened: key were the 1949 Chinese Revolution and Iran's 1951 nationalization of its oil industry. The Korean War was ending, and the Viet Minh guerrillas were harassing the French colonial regime in Vietnam. Five days before the coup in Iran, the Soviet Union tested its first hydrogen bomb (Encyclopaedia Britannica). According to Daniel Ellsberg in his book Papers on the War (1972), after 1949, no U.S. president could politically afford to be in power while another major country "went Communist" (dictating that they take actions to f...

Richard Cory and God’s Work

People can suffer in silence and suddenly they either shock us by doing something drastic or they emerge as heroes who win our admiration. † a) Briefly outline what happens in â€Å"Richard Cory† and â€Å"God’s Work†. Richard Cory, the subject of the poem by Edwin Arlington Robinson, is a man who is highly favored in his community. The working class citizens, one of which is the narrator of the poem, are always admiring his sophistication and his regal attitude. They also have high regards for his humanity, wealth as well as his status in education.The people think that Richard Cory is everything; they begin to cut back on the things they do in hope to achieve a similar lifestyle to the one that Richard Cory lives. However, without any identified reason, Richard kills himself, bringing surprise to the ones who admire him together with the reader. In the poem â€Å"God’s Work† by Ian McDonald, death also occurs, however, being of a different s tate to that of â€Å"Richard Cory†. The poet respects the main character, Mister Edwards, who is his gardener, handyman and a good friend.Mister Edwards is a strong man, both physically and mentally, and a handsome man too. However, he is ill and is experiencing the factors of death. Although Mister Edwards suffers a slow and excruciating death, he shows his great appreciation for the things he experiences. He believes that whatever happens, whether it may be pleasing or dissatisfying, it is God’s work and it happens for a reason. Coming on to the end of the poem, the poet describes the pain that Mister Edwards endures, and how many people believe that he has a strong heart.Finally, he dies, and the persona cynically cries out â€Å"God’s Work†. b) How does the statement above apply to each poem? After reading the poems â€Å"Richard Cory† and â€Å"God’s Work,† it is clearly recognized that the statement is applied in both poems. In the poems, the two main characters suffer silently, however, in â€Å"Richard Cory,† his death shocks the reader and in â€Å"God’s Work†, Mister Edwards’ strength allowed him to become admirable to the reader. The first half of the poem that states, â€Å"People suffer in silence and suddenly they either hock us by doing something drastic,† is in relation to the poem â€Å"Richard Cory†. The way in which Richard lives his life and carries himself is admired by the narrators, who continually describe his characteristics throughout most of the poem. This may be evident where they describe him as being, â€Å"Clean favored, and imperially slim. † The working class also tries their utmost best to become an individual such as Richard, evident in the lines, â€Å"In fine, we thought he was everything to make us wish that we were in his place.So on we worked, and waited for the light, and went without the meat, and cursed the bread. † Through this way of thinking, Richard Cory creates an extreme shock to the reader, by killing himself on â€Å"one calm summer night†. â€Å"God’s Work† relates to the second half of the statement which says that the people who suffer in silence, â€Å"they emerge as heroes who win our admiration. † It is evident throughout the poem that Mister Edwards is suffering from a painful illness. The poet describes Mister Edwards’ suffering; the â€Å"spasms† he experiences â€Å"crumpling up his face. However, he tries to maintain his dignity even during death through â€Å"the effort to hold back the gut contracting cry†. Obviously, Mister Edwards is a man of good faith in God. He accepts that even the worst that can happen is a part of â€Å"God’s Work† as well as the death that he is experiencing. Mister Edwards’ struggle reveals his strength of character and his heroism allowing him to become such an admiration t o the reader. c) In each case, what poetic device does the poet use to make us feel shock or admiration?The poetic device that the poets use in both poems is that of situational irony, so as to make us feel shock or admiration. In â€Å"Richard Cory†, by the way in which the citizens speak about Richard Cory’s wealth, education and his general way of living, the reader is made to believe that he is contented with his life. This may be evident in his royality; him being â€Å"a gentleman from sole to crown, clean favored, and imperially slim. † Further, it is also obvious in the way Richard Cory â€Å"glittered when he walked,† and how rich and â€Å"admirably schooled† he is.The citizens long to become as successful as Richard Cory is and â€Å"waited for the light†. However, at the end of the poem, the situational irony shocks the reader, as the narrators reveal that Richard Cory kills himself. This occurs since the reader did not expect su ch a humble and pleasant man, who seems to have everything, to do something that drastic. For the poem â€Å"God’s Work† many situations of irony occur. However, the ironic situation that allows the reader to evoke feelings of admiration is the situation where Mister Edwards accepts death as the actions of God despite the nature of the event.Although many would think that â€Å"God’s Work† is just about the blooming flowers and the rising sun, Mister Edwards believes that harsh storms and floods are also â€Å"God’s Work†, evident where the persona says, â€Å"’God’s work’, he would say when the rain pelted down and floods rushed in rivers and storms lashed the tree-tops†. The reader may wonder why such an agonizing death is experienced by someone who is said to be of good character, as he is described by the persona in the second stanza, but Mister Edwards has faith in God, believing that he allows suffering for there is a reason behind it.

Time Management - 1233 Words

Time Management By: Time management is often thought of when describing task related to business management or executive positions; those who have meetings and appointments related to business deals as well as meeting deadlines and time lines. However, time management is something everyone will have to deal with no matter the task or job. The following essay will describe time management and its importance in the work place as well as its importance for those who use it on a more personal level such as studying and learning. The essay will also explore strategies for maximizing time management and the associated individual responsibilities of time management. Finally, the benefits of time management will be discussed. Importance of†¦show more content†¦Phillips (2009) also suggest some unconventional strategies such as taking a break, which may seem as a waste at time; however this will allow tasks or jobs to be looked at with fresh eyes after a break. Phillips (2009) also suggest that developing an ability to say no to certain assignments which can be beneficial in reducing overload, while this may be feasible for work assignments it does not work with school assignments. Lastly Phillips (2009) recommends that time is made to maintain optimum health which includes eating right and getting enough rest as well as scheduling and keeping health checkups. Care must be taken to adapt the strategies that will best suit individual needs, while some advocate checking emails regularly as well as dealing with distractions, others suggest strategies that minimize interruptions, such as standing during phone conversations, or repeatedly checking the time while having a face to face conversations all in an effort to cut the distractions short (You can’t make more time, 2008). It has also been suggested to turn off e-mail alerts during peak working time to maximize the time spent doing work (You can’t make more time, 2008). These strategies of completely focusing on the task and eliminatingShow MoreRelatedTime Management And Its Impact On Students862 Words   |  4 PagesMany students find it hard to manage their time well; whether they are trying to juggle academic responsibilities such as just getting to classes, trying to keep up with the continuous demands of each class like studying, or with trying to complete multiple assignments that have to be completed before the deadline. It can be onerous. Especially, in college, there are so many distractions: different clubs, sports, and other campus activities that you can participate in such LEAD helping the communityRead MoreTime Management1058 Words   |  5 PagesTime Management is the control and focus of a pers on’s actions for the purpose of improving efficiency. 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